Introduction                                                                                          

Despite their invaluable contributions, daily wage workers frequently face precarious working conditions that jeopardize their overall well-being. This study investigates the multidimensional nature of sustainability for daily wage workers, with a particular emphasis on hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance. As a result, investigating the viability of daily wage work is not only an economic concern, but also a social imperative to ensure decent work and a dignified standard of living for this critical workforce. This study uses a mixed methods approach to comprehensively assess the sustainability of daily wage work. By combining qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques, we hope to capture daily wage workers` lived experiences and gain a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities they face in achieving sustainable livelihoods. The qualitative arm of the study employs in-depth interviews, allowing employees to share their experiences, perceptions, and narratives about hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance in their workplaces. The study’s quantitative component collects data on workers’ perceptions and experiences through a structured questionnaire with Likert scale responses. This data enables statistical analysis, allowing us to identify patterns, quantify the prevalence of specific challenges, and potentially investigate relationships between various sustainability dimensions. First, it offers a unique perspective on the complexities of daily wage work through the lens of sustainability, which includes hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance. Second, the mixed methods approach enables a thorough examination of this issue, capturing both the subjective experiences of workers and any quantitative patterns that may exist.

Literature Review

Anurag Narayan Banerjee, Nilanjan Banik and Jyoti Prasad Mukhopadhyay; Recent empirical evidence challenges the twin-peaks hypothesis, showing reduced income disparity among Indian districts. Per-capita income growth is mainly driven by the services sector, with agriculture and manufacturing lagging. While certain sub-sectors exhibit bimodal income distributions, overall income-density remains unimodal, highlighting a research gap in sectoral income dynamics. The study examines the relationship between sectoral income growth and poverty reduction. It finds that growth in agriculture significantly contributes to poverty alleviation, highlighting the importance of enhancing agricultural productivity to mitigate rural poverty. Additionally, access to banking services emerges as a crucial factor in poverty reduction, emphasizing the role of financial inclusion in promoting economic well-being. Rajyasri Roy, Amit Kundu; This study delves into the correlation between informal employment and poverty incidence, focusing on both the status and location of workers. It reveals a higher concentration of poverty among informal workers in rural areas compared to urban areas, attributed to limited employment opportunities in rural settings. Casual workers, particularly in the public sector, experience the highest levels of poverty across all regions. Additionally, self-employed workers exhibit a higher incidence of poverty compared to regular salaried workers but fare better than casual workers. Moreover, the location of work also influences poverty rates, with poverty being highest among workers without fixed locations in rural areas and those working in other locations in urban areas and at the national level. The poverty gap experienced by different types of workers in rural and urban areas.

 Abhinav Narayanan; The study highlights a significant wage gap between formal and informal workers across all wage levels, indicating that informal workers would earn more if they had access to formal employment. Moreover, the wage gap is not solely explained by differences in human capital and individual characteristics but also by discrimination, with informal workers receiving lower returns for their skills and characteristics compared to their formal counterparts. The wage gap highlights that formal workers tend to receive higher returns on their human capital and individual characteristics compared to informal workers, aligning with efficiency wage theory. Indrani Gupta1*, Pradeep Guin; Lack of basic amenities and quality concerns in urban slums exacerbate health vulnerabilities. NGOs and PPPs show promise in addressing urban health challenges, but systemic reforms are urgently needed. The shift away from urban health initiatives raises concerns, necessitating innovative approaches to prevent further health inequities.Debasish Mondal, Aniruddha Kayet; This study examines the measurement of economic inequality in India and its major states, focusing on the widely used Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve derived from expenditure data collected by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). The study delves into the limitations of NSSO data, including potential biases, which may affect the accuracy of inequality estimates.

Sanjay K Mohanty1, Anshul Kastor2 and Laxmi Kant Dwivedi; This paper delves into the burgeoning research interest surrounding out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure and catastrophic health spending (CHS) in developing countries. However, it acknowledges the challenges in estimating consumption expenditure accurately, including variations in survey designs, recall periods, and question structures. Overall, the paper underscores the importance of data quality and appropriate methodologies in estimating CHS and its implications for household impoverishment due to health expenditure.Siddharth Agarwal*, Aravinda Satyavada**, S. Kaushik and Rajeev Kumar; The National Population Policy 2000 highlights the importance of partnering with NGOs for urban health programs, which have effectively expanded services to underserved slums in cities like Bangalore, Chennai, and Delhi. It`s crucial to map slum clusters and assess vulnerabilities before initiating programs, involving local stakeholders for better outcomes. Overall, these partnerships show promise in addressing the healthcare needs of slum populations.

 Sohail Ahmad; Housing Poverty and Inequality in Urban India Households with higher-ranking occupations tend to consume more floor area, indicating a correlation between occupational prestige and housing preferences. Similarly, better employment status correlates with increased floor area consumption, albeit to a lesser extent. There lies stark differences in living standards between owner households and renters/slum dwellers, with the latter experiencing lower living standards, particularly in terms of floor area consumption. These disparities are attributed to both differences in endowment levels and unequal returns to those endowments, indicating systemic inequalities within society. The study also sheds light on the influence of location characteristics, revealing that smaller cities offer better housing consumption opportunities, possibly due to fewer land constraints. Piyush Tiwari and Jyoti Rao; The definition of affordability, based solely on house size, fails to address the financial realities of low-income segments. The gap between affordability and market prices, compounded by the lack of financial instruments for lower-income groups, renders the goal unattainable. Overall, the review underscores the necessity for a more holistic and inclusive approach to housing policy to truly achieve ‘‘housing for all. Housing programs lacked funding and suffered from top-down decision-making, sidelining grassroots input. Addressing these issues requires increased funding, decentralized decision-making, and improved coordination. Jhilam Ray1 & Rajarshi Majumder; Improving the living standards of workers is a crucial goal in developing countries, including India. This hinges on enhancing income levels, which are influenced by occupational status and earnings from work, i.e., wage levels. The paper highlights the significance of wage levels as a key indicator of workers’ conditions and examines the intergenerational mobility in wage income. By exploring the direction and magnitude of movement of workers’ wages relative to their parents’, the paper aims to provide the understanding of workers’ conditions and trends over time. The persistence of income inequality across generations, which challenges the notion of equity in opportunity. It underscores how historical economic and social discrimination against certain groups perpetuates lower income and asset possession, leading to limited capability formation and intergenerational mobility, particularly among backward classes.  Ray, Jhilam and Majumder, Rajarshi; The persistence of wage income across generations in India has remained notably high, particularly for excluded groups, despite some recent improvements for SC/OBC communities. This suggests limited mobility and stagnant living conditions for workers compared to their parents. The low base wage income of excluded classes contributes to this disparity. Despite two decades of economic reform and openness, the labor market remains bleak, with discrimination persisting and wage returns flattening out. High intergenerational stickiness points to a vicious cycle of social inequality. Urgent action is needed from the state to translate economic growth into tangible improvements for the working masses. Sushanta Mahapatra; The study examines livelihood and sustainable livelihood concepts, focusing on the interlinked land, labor, and credit transactions in rural economies. It discusses how livelihood, defined by capabilities, assets, and activities for sustaining life, becomes sustainable when it can withstand stresses without depleting natural resources. Sen and Lipton’s frameworks on employment and poverty reduction are outlined, emphasizing income, production, and recognition aspects. The review highlights Bardhan and Rudra’s seminal study identifying credit-tenancy contracts, tenancy-labor links, and labor-credit contracts in traditional settings. It underscores the plight of rural laborers compelled into interlocked markets due to the need for livelihood security, leading to exploitation and wage differentials. Despite some interest-free arrangements, the literature suggests pervasive labor exploitation and the challenge of bargaining power for the weaker market participants.

Impact of Public Works Programmes; R. Seenivasan; The author highlights India’s persistent efforts to alleviate poverty, with a focus on rural areas. Despite successes, challenges remain, with 315 million people still living in poverty, primarily in rural regions. Vulnerable groups like landless agricultural laborers and marginal farmers are particularly affected. The paper underscores the need for inclusive growth in agriculture and calls for more research on poverty dynamics among farming and agricultural labor households. It suggests examining poverty trends, their connection to agricultural growth, and strategies for achieving targeted agricultural growth.  Neoliberal Governmentality and Social Policymaking in India; M. Jha, A. Pankaj; The authors explore the impact of neoliberalism on community work in India, focusing on policies affecting informal sector workers. Overall, it underscores the challenges posed by neoliberalism and governmentality for community work in India.Seasonal Migration and Unfree Labour in Globalizing India: Deepak K. Mishra; It does not fully explore the spectrum of exploitative conditions faced by migrants, nor does it thoroughly investigate the role of social identities in shaping migration patterns. The paper raises crucial questions about labor exploitation but leaves gaps in understanding the complexities of migration dynamics and its implications for contemporary capitalism.

 Evaluation of Decent Work Index for Informal Workers: B. Banerjee, A. Kundu; This study examines the achievement of decent work among rural and urban informal workers in Hooghly district, West Bengal, India, using a theoretical framework based on seven work-based security dimensions. The findings highlight the limited effectiveness of education in improving decent work conditions for informal workers without adequate skill-building initiatives. Additionally, it underscores the poor work conditions faced by rural informal workers and self-employed individualsIssues for Sustainable Growth/Innovation for Sustainability; Namrita S. Heyden; India`s economic growth has spurred unsustainable consumption patterns, challenging traditional norms. This review examines drivers, stakeholder roles, challenges, and potential for green innovation in India’s evolving consumer landscape. However, affordability, access to green alternatives, and cultural resistance hinder progress. Manisha Anantharaman; This review delves into the emerging pro-environmental behaviors among the new middle class in Bangalore, India, focusing on household waste management. The author effectively demonstrates how privileged individuals are driving change through neighborhood-based coordination, drawing on ecological citizenship theory. However, a notable gap lies in the insufficient recognition of the contributions of marginalized actors such as domestic servants and waste workers, whose livelihood practices are essential in enabling these behaviors. By addressing this oversight, future research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic dynamics shaping pro-environmental initiatives in emerging economies like India.

Sustainable Development in India 2.0 with Reference to the BOP Perspective K. Raj, P. Aithal; Emphasizing the vast potential of the bottom of the pyramid (BOP) sector, the paper highlights the need to empower the poorest segments of society for inclusive growth. It delves into economic, social, environmental, and industrial perspectives, offering insights into avenues for sustained development. Overall, the paper offers a compelling argument for leveraging the BOP segment to drive holistic growth and development in India. Sustainable development: B. Karunakar; It emphasizes the collective responsibility of various stakeholders, including the government, private sector, non-profits, and the public, in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, the article lacks specific insights into the actual progress made by Indian companies towards sustainability, leaving a notable gap in assessing the effectiveness of CSR efforts.

Research Question

How do hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance factors contribute to the multidimensional sustainability of daily wage work?

Objectives

1. Explore the lived experiences of daily wage workers in relation to hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance at their workplaces.
2. Identify the challenges and opportunities they face in achieving a sustainable livelihood.
3. Understand the emotional aspects of their experiences using sentiment analysis.
4. Assess the prevalence of access to washrooms, safety measures, and support services among daily wage workers.
5. Analyze the distribution of daily income and explore the impact of fluctuations or deductions on financial security.
6. Measure the frequency of stress and job insecurity experienced by daily wage workers.
7. Investigate potential relationships between job characteristics and experiences related to hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance (if the data allows for inferential statistics).

Methodology

This section outlines the research methodology employed to examine the multidimensional nature of sustainability for daily wage workers. The study adopts a mixed methods approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques. The qualitative data provides rich, contextualized insights into the lived experiences of daily wage workers, while the quantitative data allows for statistical analysis and identification of patterns. The target population included daily wage workers from various sectors, such as construction, manufacturing, domestic work, and street vendors. Through community outreach programs, worker unions, and snowball sampling (referrals from initial participants), 15 daily wage workers were recruited for the qualitative interviews. This involved recruiting participants readily available within accessible locations frequented by daily wage workers. 150 daily wage workers participated in the survey, ensuring a sample size sufficient for statistical analysis.

Data Collection Techniques – In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the recruited daily wage workers. A pre-defined interview guide served as a framework, including open-ended questions designed to elicit detailed descriptions of their experiences related to hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance in their jobs. A structured questionnaire was developed to collect quantitative data from daily wage workers. The questionnaire utilized a Likert scale format, where participants rated their level of agreement or disagreement with statements related to hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance in their workplaces. The questionnaire was pilot-tested with a small group of daily wage workers to ensure clarity and comprehensibility before full-scale data collection. The coding process involved systematically assigning codes to segments of the transcripts that captured key concepts and experiences related to the research question. To further enrich the analysis and capture the emotional undertones of the workers` experiences, sentiment analysis will also be employed. The quantitative data collected through the questionnaire was analyzed using statistical software. Descriptive statistics (means, medians, standard deviations) were calculated to summarize the responses for each variable related to hygiene, safety, financial security, and work-life balance.

Analysis

Part I – Qualitative Analysis

i) Thematic Analysis of Daily Wage Worker Interviews:

This report explores the experiences of daily wage workers through a method called reflexive thematic analysis by using software MAXQDA. This approach delves into qualitative data, like interview transcripts, to identify recurring themes and patterns. It acknowledges that the researcher’s background and biases can influence interpretation, requiring a mindful approach.

The analysis involved a series of steps as follows:

Stage 1: Immersion in the Data

First, we began by thoroughly reading and re-reading interview transcripts (1-14) to become deeply familiar with the workers’ stories. This initial immersion laid the groundwork for understanding the language used, the context of the interviews, and the overall experiences described.

Stage 2: Coding:Next comes coding, where we identified and labelled meaningful segments of text that capture key concepts or ideas. These codes became building blocks for theme development.

Stage 3: Identifying Initial Themes:Based on the codes, we started grouping related concepts to form initial themes. These themes represent broader patterns emerging from the data.

Stage 4: Refining and Reviewing Themes:Through critical reflection, we refined the initial themes. This involved ensuring themes are distinct, well-supported by the data, and capture the complexity of the workers’ experiences.

Stage 5: Naming and Defining Themes:Finally, we assigned clear and concise names to each theme. These names accurately reflect the essence of the theme and its connection to the data.

Stage 6: Write Up:The final stage involved weaving together the identified themes, supported by evidence from the transcripts, to present a comprehensive understanding of the daily wage workers’ experiences.

This report will follow this structured approach to unveil the key themes and sub-themes within the in-depth interview data we collected.

ii) Sentiment Analysis of Workers

This analysis delves into the hearts of daily wage worker experiences. Using sentiment analysis, we explore not just their words, but the emotions behind them. We uncover a reality marked by tough working conditions, highlighting the need for positive change.

Total Number of Codes: The qualitative coding process led to the generation of total 39 open codes.

Finding of Themes:

The above codes can be grouped into the following main themes:

1. Working Conditions (12 codes): Lack of Hygiene Facilities (5), Inconsistent/Lack of Safety Equipment (7), Physical Impact of Work (5)
2. Wages and Income (10 codes): Daily Wage Range/Income Fluctuation (8), Gender Pay Gap (2), Stagnant Wages (3)
3. Work-Life Balance (9 codes): Working Hours (7), Balancing Work and Personal Life (5), Work Culture Perception (2)
4. Housing (3 codes): Lack of Hostel Facilities (4)
5. Job Description (2 codes): Miscellaneous Work (7) (This sub-theme might need further analysis to identify specific job types)
6. Health Impact (2 codes)

Part II – Quantitative Analysis

Data Preparation – The questionnaire data was imported into an SPSS data file, ensuring proper variable labeling and data types. Likert-scale responses were coded into numerical values for each variable (e.g., 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Missing data points were identified, and an appropriate strategy (imputation) was implemented to address them.

Descriptive Statistics – Frequencies tables were generated for each variable to explore the distribution of responses, including central tendency measures (mean, median) and dispersion measures (standard deviation).

Correlation Analysis – A correlation analysis was conducted using the “Correlate” function with “Pearson” correlation selected. This assessed the strength and direction of the relationships between stress (dependent variable) and job-related factors (independent variables) like job insecurity, work stability, fluctuations in earnings, and daily working hours.

Data Visualization – Scatterplots were generated using the “Scatter/Dot” function to visually examine the relationships between stress and each job-related factor identified in the correlation analysis.

Descriptive Statistics:

	Q1	Q2	Q3	Q4	Q5	Q6	Q7	Q8	Q9	Q10	Q11	Q12	Q13	Q14	Q15	Q16	Q17
Mean	2.69	1.75	3.05	2.14	2.71	2.50	2.24	3.19	3.10	3.72	2.52	3.79	2.24	2.14	2.55	2.47	4.17
Median	2.00	2.00	3.00	2.00	2.50	2.00	2.00	3.00	3.00	4.00	2.00	4.00	2.00	2.00	2.00	2.00	4.00
Mode	2	1	2	2	2	2	2	4	3	4	2	5	3	2	2	2	5
Std. Deviation	.991	.732	1.032	.492	.944	.981	.527	.958	.857	1.069	.967	1.103	.902	.635	.671	.662	.988

Correlation:

	How often do you experience stress related to your job?	Do you experience fluctuations in your daily earnings?	What are your daily working hours?	How confident are you about the stability of your job in the future?	Have you experienced layoffs or job insecurity in the past year?
How often do you experience stress related to your job?	Pearson Correlation	1	.133	-.044	-.515**	.398**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.104	.597	<.001	<.001
	N	150	150	150	150	150
Do you experience fluctuations in your daily earnings?	Pearson Correlation	.133	1	.215**	-.200*	.133
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.104		.008	.014	.104
	N	150	150	150	150	150
What are your daily working hours?	Pearson Correlation	-.044	.215**	1	-.076	.130
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.597	.008		.354	.112
	N	150	150	150	150	150
How confident are you about the stability of your job in the future?	Pearson Correlation	-.515**	-.200*	-.076	1	-.364**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	<.001	.014	.354		<.001
	N	150	150	150	150	150
Have you experienced layoffs or job insecurity in the past year?	Pearson Correlation	.398**	.133	.130	-.364**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	<.001	.104	.112	<.001
	N	150	150	150	150	150
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Results & Discussion: Thematic Analysis Results:

• Working Conditions: The interviews reveal a significant concern regarding inadequate hygiene facilities (e.g., lack of washrooms) and inconsistent or absent safety equipment. Workers experience physical strain due to the nature of their jobs, and some may have developed health issues over time.
• Wages and Income: The daily wage range is relatively low (Rs. 400-800), with fluctuations and a lack of regular wage increases. There’s also evidence of a gender pay gap, with women potentially earning less. These factors contribute to difficulty managing expenses.
• Work-Life Balance: While some workers express satisfaction with an 8-hour workday, others face challenges balancing work with personal and family life, especially due to unfixed schedules or long hours. Perceptions of work culture vary, with some content and others finding it difficult.
• Housing: The lack of hostel facilities for some workers suggests additional financial strain on housing costs.

Code Trends:

• Codes related to working conditions (lack of hygiene, safety issues, physical strain) appear frequently across most transcripts, highlighting a prevalent challenge.
• Codes related to income fluctuation and stagnant wages suggest financial insecurity.
• While some workers manage work-life balance, others struggle, particularly women.

Word Trends:

Analyzing word frequency within each code or theme can provide deeper insights. For instance, words like “strain,” “pain,” and “difficulty” within the “Physical Impact of Work” code emphasize the physical toll on workers.

Sentiment Analysis Results:

Overwhelmingly Negative Working Conditions: Codes and quotes highlight the negative sentiment surrounding working conditions. The lack of hygiene facilities, safety equipment, and the physical strain of the work all contribute to a feeling of being undervalued and exposed to health risks.

Limited Positive Sentiment: There is a near absence of positive sentiment regarding working conditions, wages, or work-life balance. This suggests a systemic issue requiring significant improvement.

Neutral Sentiment: Neutral sentiment emerges in references to safety training (Working Conditions), the physical demands being manageable (Physical Work Demands), competitive wages compared to similar jobs (Wages and Income), overtime compensation (Work-Life Balance), and transportation assistance (Housing Situation). However, these neutral aspects don’t outweigh the dominant negative sentiment.

Descriptive Analysis Results:

Work Environment and Support: The majority of workers reported having access to washroom facilities (mean = 2.69) and receiving safety measures (mean = 2.71). Workers reported a slight uncertainty regarding the availability and accessibility of support services (mean = 2.55). The data suggests some workers might experience fluctuations in their daily earnings (mean = 3.19, standard deviation = 0.958).

Job Security and Stress: Workers reported feeling a moderate level of job insecurity (mean = 2.14) and a lack of strong confidence in job stability (mean = 2.24). The reported average stress level (mean = 3.79) suggests that a significant portion of daily wage workers experience job-related stress.

Government Support and Worker Perceptions: While the average response regarding government support for the informal sector leans slightly positive (mean = 2.52), there is some variation in opinions. A large majority of workers (mean = 3.72) believe there is a need for specific policy measures to address the challenges faced by the informal labor market.

Limitations: It’s important to acknowledge that these findings are based on descriptive statistics and do not allow for causal inferences. The specific Likert scale used for the questionnaire should also be considered when interpreting the results.  A larger and more diverse sample could further strengthen the generalizability of these findings.

Correlation Analysis Results: Stress and Job Security:

• Negative Correlation (r = -0.515): A statistically significant negative correlation was observed between stress and job security. This indicates that workers who reported feeling less confident about their job stability (lower scores on the job security question) also reported higher levels of stress (higher scores on the stress question).
• This finding aligns with existing research suggesting that job insecurity is a well-established stressor for workers. The constant threat of losing their job can create anxiety, worry, and a sense of instability, potentially leading to higher stress levels. Stress and

Layoffs:

• Positive Correlation (r = 0.398): A statistically significant positive correlation was found between stress and layoffs. This means that workers who reported experiencing layoffs or job insecurity in the past year (higher scores on the layoffs question) also tended to report higher stress levels.
• This correlation further supports the link between job insecurity and stress. Workers who have personally experienced layoffs might be more apprehensive about future job security, potentially leading to heightened stress levels. Additionally, the experience of being laid off itself can be stressful, even if the worker is currently employed.

Conclusion

This study investigated the experiences of daily wage workers through a two-pronged approach, combining quantitative analysis of a questionnaire and qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews. The quantitative analysis, based on responses from 150 daily wage workers using SPSS for descriptive and correlation analysis, revealed concerning trends. Descriptive statistics showed that while basic amenities like washroom facilities and safety measures seem prevalent, some workers experience fluctuations in earnings and limited access to support services. The qualitative analysis, based on in-depth interviews with 15 daily wage workers using MAXQDA for thematic and sentiment analysis, provided rich details that reinforced the quantitative findings. Workers` narratives highlighted the challenges associated with: Concerns about meeting household expenses and managing income fluctuations emerged as key themes. The quantitative data provides statistical evidence for the prevalence of job insecurity, stress, and limited support, while the qualitative data offers a deeper understanding of the lived experiences and hardships associated with these factors. However, promoting job security, ensuring access to essential support services, and addressing income fluctuations are crucial steps towards improving the well-being of daily wage workers.

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